The hearth was, in pre- and early medieval times, the Holy of Holies. The heart of the family. Where you would lay back and groove. Groove on the sound of the endless rains on the thatched roof, or on the sound of seawater at your feet below. Splashing against the grassy slopes of your house platform. A lifted place that was warm and soulful, filled with good spirits and minds. But how did those early Frisians manage to keep evil spirits, vile creatures, and sickness at bay? How did they protect their yards and houses from this darkness? Well, dig this. They did it with grooves. Superstition was the way!
In this blog post, we focus on the terp region – a terp being an artificial settlement platform/mound. The salt-marsh terp culture existed in the northwest of the region of Flanders in Belgium, in the north of the Netherlands, in the northwest of Germany, and in the southwest of the region of Jutland in Denmark. This tidal-marshland culture is as old as 2,600 years, when the first dwelling mounds were raised. After the Romans arrived at the beginning of the Common Era, we learn the names of these coastal dwellers, of these earthmovers. It was the territory of the Frisians, called Frisii or Fresones by the Romans, in the west, and the Chauci more to the east, both living alongside the Wadden Sea coast.
Where exactly the border between the two tribes ran, cannot be determined anymore. According to the second-century AD Roman-Greek scholar Ptolemaeus, the River Ems was the border between the Phrissioi ‘Frisians’ and the Kauchoi ‘Chauci’. However, archaeological research shows closer kinship of the province of Groningen with the Chauci in the east, than with the Frisians in the west (Nieuwhof 2021). Today, the River Ems is a border still. Now between Germany and the Netherlands, although the exact course of the border in the Dollart Bight is being disputed between the two countries to this day. No kidding.
After the Roman Period and the Migration Age that followed, the whole area between Sincfala, i.e. the inlet Zwin in the region of Flanders, and the River Weser, had become the territory of the Frisians. Also, much of the Wadden Sea coast of the state of Schleswig-Holstein was colonized by Frisians from the Early Middle Ages onward. This is the region known today as Nordfriesland ‘North Frisia.’ Albeit culturally Frisian, the region of Nordfriesland was never part of political Tota Frisia. From the High Middle Ages onward, Frisia west of the River Vlie had come under the control of the counts of Flanders and Holland. The remainder of Frisia encompassed the area between the River Vlie and the River Weser. In other words, the current provinces of Friesland and Groningen in the Netherlands, and the region of Ostfriesland, including the region of Butjadingen and Stadland, in Germany. Land Wursten, the marshlands bordering the River Weser to the east, were a cultural Frisian region, too, but not part of the region of Ostfriesland.
This territory of Frisia more or less would continue to be the status quo until the end of the fifteenth century, when this remainder of Frisia was dissolved, too.
Oracle rods, spinning wool, and all that
The second-century AD Roman historian Tacitus (ca 56-117) wrote about the religious, pagan practices of the Germanic tribes in general. For example, he noted that the people did not depict their idols as humans and that they worshiped their gods in open-air settings, somewhere at a lo, an open spot in a forest (Van Renswoude 2021). Women could be fortune-tellers and could possess the gift of prophecy. Casting lots and human sacrifice were also part of Germanic rituals. White horses, living ‘freely’ in the woods, warned people and predicted future events. There is, unfortunately, very limited information about the gods the Frisians worshiped, both the Frisii in the north and west of the Netherlands and the Frisiavones in the southwest. Several names of idols and matres we do know, but here our knowledge basically ends.
Almost two-hundred so-called oracle rods, being used to cast lots with, have been recovered, especially in the northwest of Germany and in the north of the Netherlands. These are dated from the Roman Period into the Middle Ages. Oracle rods that have been preserved are made of silver, bronze, bone or horn. According to the same Tacitus mentioned above, oracle rods were made of branches of fruit-bearing trees. It might these wooden lots did not survive the passage of time, of course. Hence hard to trace for archaeologists.
The pagan practice of casting lots was even incorporated into the late-eighth-century codex Lex Frisionum, meaning ‘law of the Frisians’. The Lex Frisionum is the codification of the unwritten laws and legal practices of the Frisian people, and was ordered by the king of Francia. The Frankish kingdom was the most powerful Christian realm in Europe in the Early Middle Ages, to which Frisia was subjected since the beginning of the eighth century. Therefore, the pagan practice of casting lots was modified in the Lex Frisionum as being a sign of God to determine who was guilty when, for example, in a riot someone was killed (Hines 2021). It feels like a compromise — a pagan practice reframed and incorporated into the Christian laws of the Frankish kingdom. Besides, are we not talking about ‘it is someone’s destiny,’ and do we not all love the lottery to this very day? Casting lots, therefore, is a pagan practice that survived Christianization. Too deeply rooted.
Not only mankind was submitted to lot or destiny. Interestingly, gods and deities, too. This makes one wonder: what was lot or fate then? Maybe it was the Fates of Greek mythology. The Fates, a trio of goddesses, determined the destiny of each and every human. One of the three goddesses was Clotho. She made wool and spun the so-called Thread of Life. Goddess Lachesis measured the length of the thread. In other words, she determined how long some would live. Goddess Atropos cut the thread with her shears, signifying death. In addition, was it not the three wool-spinning maidens in Germanic mythology that lived next to the well Urđr below the tree Yggdrasill? The maidens were named Urđr, Verđandi, and Skuld, successively ‘what once was’, ‘what is born to be’, and ‘what will be’. Parallels with the Greek Fates are there, of course.
Wool production, by the way, was a major and crucial economic activity in the society of Frisia, and its handicraft was protected by the Lex Frisionum mentioned above. If, for example, you would hurt a spinster, you had to face very severe punishment. For more about the production of wool in medieval Frisia, check our blog posts Haute couture from the salt marshes and Come to rescue The Rolling Sheep.
In European folklore, spinning and weaving wool were linked to the world of fairies and myths. Scottish weavers offered milk to the Highland fairy named Loireag. Then there is the Germanic winter spirit called Berchta, also known as Perchta, Frau Holle, or Mother Hulda. In this fairy tale, the stepdaughter is pricked by a spinning wheel, which sets the events in motion. Sleeping Beauty, also known as Toarnroaske or Doornroosje in the Mid Frisian and Dutch language, respectively, is pricked by a spinning wheel as well. In Wales exists the fairy spinner Gwarwyn-a-Throt, and in Ireland the fairy spinner Girle Guairle. Furthermore, in medieval Scandinavia, a female spirit called Seidr existed, meaning ‘thread’.
What were the gods of the early Frisians?
Firstly, the goddess Baduhenna is known from the Battle of Baduhenna in AD 24, a battle just north of the modern city of Amsterdam between the Frisians and the Romans, with a body count of 1,300 soldiers on the Roman side, according to the Roman historian Tacitus. Maybe he exaggerated a bit; no statistics of the Frisians have been recorded, probably because these were of no interest to the Romans.
Secondly, the goddess Hludana. Known from an inscription found at the town of Xanten at the Lower River Rhine in Germany. But also from an inscription found at the village of Beetgum in the province of Friesland. Perhaps Hludana was worshiped by the Frisians living in the northwest of the Netherlands.
The inscription reads: "To the goddess Hludana, the fishing contractors, when Quintus Valerius Secundus acted as tenant, fulfilled their vow willingly and deservedly."
Thirdly, the matres Frisiavae. Known from an altar stone found in the town of Wissen, halfway between Cologne and Frankfurt. How it ended all the way up there, we have not got the foggiest idea. Certainly no territory of Frisian influence anymore. Had it something to do with the early-medieval Frisian Rhine Skippers?
Fourthly, the goddess Nehalennia. Known from the hundreds of stone altar pieces found in the waters near the towns of Domburg and Colijnsplaat, both in the province of Zeeland in the southwest of the Netherlands. This used to be the territory of the Frisiavones, the so-called Romanized Frisians (IJssennagger 2017). The element avo means ‘belonging to/descending from’. So, the people belonging to/descending from the Frisians (Neumann 2008). Not only Frisians, but ‘foreign’ skippers and traders travelling to Britannia from Trier, Cologne, Nijmegen, etc., also made offerings to Nehalennia for safe passage sailing the English Channel from Domburg and Colijnsplaat to Britannia. Read also our blog post Walcheren Island. Once Sodom and Gomorrah of the North Sea to learn more about Nehalennia.
Lastly, fifthly, we mention the gods worshiped by Frisians known from votive inscriptions found all the way in northern Britain. These gods were not worshiped by your average Frisian. They were mercenaries in the Roman Army fighting in Britannia, and who were deployed at Hadrian’s Wall. The goddesses they worshiped were the two Alaisiagae, named Baudihillia and Friagabis. Go to our blog post Frisian Mercenaries in the Roman Army to read more in depth about these soldiers of fortune. Casually, these mercenaries also erected a pillar dedicated to the god of the thing. The thing being the Germanic assembly, also known as ting, ding or þing. The inscription of the Frisians happens to be the oldest written attestation of the name thing. Check our blog post Well, the Thing is… to learn more about these soldiers with a democratic nature.
Of all the gods mentioned above, we do not suggest these were specific Frisian gods. We merely explained these were Germanic-Celtic gods (also) worshiped by Frisians. And not even that conclusion is definitive.
The picture of these ‘Frisian’ gods is that these were deities, goddesses, or women. This fits nicely with what we know from other native Germanic-Celtic gods during the Roman Period, namely that they were all feminine. This is consistent with what Tacitus wrote about the specific powers attributed to women as well, as mentioned above.
On some of these rituals we know that they were still being practiced by the Frisian people in the Early Middle Ages. It was the seventh-century Saint Wulfram of Fontenelle, Archbishop of Sens, who pleaded with the heathen King Radbod of Frisia not to perform human sacrifices. A king described as the Enemy of Christ, and as homo omni fera crudelior et omni lapide durior meaning ‘a human being more savage than any wild beast and harder than any stone’. The killing was executed either by hanging, or by tying someone up at a pole in the sea during ebb tide to let him or her drown slowly, after being castrated beforehand, too. The practice of drowning is also documented as a punishment in the already mentioned Lex Frisionum, where tying up someone to a pole to be drowned by the rising sea was a punishment for sacrilege of temples. Therefore, not a sacrifice per se, but a legitimate punishment (from the Frisian point of view).
By the way, Saint Wulfram is also known from the famous failed baptism of King Radbod. For this piece of history read our blog post Finally, King Redbad made his point in the European Commission – via Facebook.
In addition, as explained above, besides human sacrifice, the in origin pagan practice of casting lots survived Christianization as well and was practiced in the Early Middle Ages, too.
The image presented above of the so-called Boerdam mask (Boerdam is a hamlet in the province of Groningen) is easily associated with pagan rituals. However, when a school class asked the professor why it was not just made for fun, he did not really have any arguments against it (Nijdam 2021).
What about those grooves?
Not any different from today, for terp dwellers, too, it was important that their land, farmyards, and houses were free from evil spirits and souls, and from infectious diseases and sickness. They did not use face masks nor vaccinations. The concept for protection the ancient Frisians used might have been a barrier model. Drawing imaginary circles, with the hearth of the house annex farmstead being the center. Similar to the innovative models still being used by wise policymakers on security, defence, and migration. Or like the force fields in ’80s science fiction movies or video games. Maybe all this illustrates that a concentric barrier model is an innate template of the human brain. Remember being a child in your bed at night, afraid of spooks and stuff, and how you designed fictional barriers around you and your bed as well?
The, whether or not universal, concentric barrier model fits very well with the physical, radial layout of a terp village. An artificial, mostly circular mound on the flat and treeless tidal marshlands.
The first, outer ring was the salt marsh bordering the sea. The surrounding land started with soft mud, and towards the terp settlement, it gradually became more solid and suitable for cattle to graze and even crops to grow on. Often, the more inland tidal marshlands were protected with low dykes, so-called summer dykes, which offered protection against the more regular flooding. Spring tides and storm floods, however, kept inundating the marshlands despite the summer dykes, reckon of ten to twenty times yearly.
The second ring was the flanks or slopes of the terp itself, which were used for cultivating crops and cutting grass sods for construction. In addition, the flanks were used to place sheds for crafts like weaving, blacksmithing, clay pottery production, and alike.
The third ring, or inner circle, was the terp village with houses and fresh water wells. Wells often contained deposits, too, like spoke wheels, horse heads, etc. Probably also with a ritual meaning. An interesting artifact has been found in a dung pit in the terp of the village of Wartena in the province of Friesland, namely a wooden phallus. It is dated to the Roman Period.
When it comes to warding off evil spirits, souls, sickness, and death, the hearth was the center of all three circles. The hearth itself was protected as well, as evidenced by frequent deposits found underneath it. Sometimes, pieces of wooden wheels were excavated from beneath the hearth. If you are interested in why wheels were buried and considered sacred, read our blog post Celtic-Frisian heritage – there’s no dealing with the Wheels of Fortune. Take note of our warning from that blog post: do not mess with wheels when you are in Frisia!
From the truly beautiful terp village of Westeremden in the province of Groningen, a stick of yew wood has been preserved carrying the runic inscription ᚩᛈᚻᚳᛗᚢᛡᛥᚪᛞᚪᚳᛗᛚᚢᚦ ᚹIᛗᛟᛥ ᚳᚻᚦᚢᚴᚾ IᚹIᚩᚳᚢᛈᛞᚢᚿᚪᛚᛖ. For those who do not read Anglo-Frisian runes, it says: “at the homestead stays good fortune | may it also grow near the yew on the terp | Wimœd owns this” (Looijenga 2003). It seems offerings with runes were made when a house or other building was built. Comparable in a way to the still-living practice of the meiboom ‘May tree’ in the Netherlands. A meiboom is a tree branch with leaves attached to the roof when a house is being constructed and has reached its highest point.
From the already radiant patterns of the tidal marshlands, now let’s turn to the circular barrier model of defence. This time we take you through the force fields from the inside out.
first line of defence
The first ring was the house, its walls and its doors. Underneath the poles supporting the roof and door frames, deposits were placed. These could be, for example, animal bones, terra sigillata, and small pots with, perhaps, food offerings placed in them. Additionally, often at the base of the walls of the house, skulls of cows, horses, and dogs were placed (see image below). Other deposits found during excavations of terps are locks of hair. These locks might also have been part of rites of passage, for example, a boy turning into a man or warrior, or a girl turning into a woman and, therefore, not part of the energy-giving rituals for the force field.
second line of defence
The second imaginary circle was created immediately around the house. Indeed, this was done by digging grooves or furrows. Besides, these ditches probably functioned as little channels to collect water. Rainwater fell from the roof into these grooves and led to central fresh water wells and basins. The same grooves also functioned as protection against evil spirits. Collecting rainwater was vital for the terp dwellers since fresh water was often scarce on the salt marshes. The Roman Pliny the Elder wrote in the first century AD about these water pits – read our blog post Shipwrecked People of the Salt Marshes.
third line of defence
Then, the third circle. This was the farmyard itself. The force field of the yard was energized with all kinds of deposits, mainly placed in pits. They could be clay pots, again with possible food offerings inside, animal bones, and potsherds. Complete skeletons of horses and, regularly, big dogs have been found, too. For more about these fearsome war dogs, read our blog post How to bury your mother-in-law.
fourth line of defence
The final, fourth, circle was made by another round of grooves, furrows, and ditches. These bordered the yard. Again, deposits were placed in these ditches. This could be intact (miniature) pots, pottery, potsherds, and animal bones. Not always, but pots and pottery were also smashed when deposited. Sometimes even bronze Roman statuettes of idols and brooches were placed in grooves. If ditches were filled due to, for example, a terp enlargement, again ritual deposits were being made. Why disband a good protective force field after it was sealed off? Or was it a way to say thanks to the ditch and its water for all the protective work done in the years before? Some archaeologists argue that deposits were being made when a groove or ditch was dug in new land as a means of compensation for the goddesses and spirits for the infringement of ‘their’ lands (Tuin 2015).
But not only bones and skulls of animals were used…
Archaeological excavations in the terp region identified human bones and skulls literally lying all over the place. These bones were used to strengthen the protective power of the circle. Although the dead were normally not buried in the terp mound itself, and excarnation above ground was the common funeral practice during the Roman Period (Nieuwhof 2015), occasionally complete inhumations, both adults and infants, were found under the floor of the house or in the yard, mostly within a radius of ten to twenty meters of the house. Mandibles, femurs, tibias, vertebrae, and skull fragments of humans have all been found in pits, grooves, and ditches.
Archaeologists also give as possible explanation for the finds of worked human bone that it was part of rituals to establish the identity of land and house property through the ‘presence’ of ancestors. To tie the family to the land, as it were.
Do not be too alarmed. Ritual use of human bone is very comparable to the relics of Catholic saints today. These relics still serve as an intermediary between heaven and earth (Van Eijnatten & Van Lieburg 2006) and as protection against evil and sickness. Bones of humans declared saints are still being carried around during processions, immured in church walls, and entombed in holy altars. If you think all this is just too weird again, think of the millions of people who perform the holy rite of the Eucharist today and who then consume the blood and flesh of Christ, coming close to a form of cannibalism even.
Human skull bone was even worked. Polished and a hole was perforated into it, so it could be used as an amulet. These human amulets and cups have been found in the terps of Arum-Baarderburen, Marrum-De Beer, Stiens-Kramer, Hempens-Glins, Ezinge, and Wierhuizen. Your deceased mother or grandma was always close around your neck, maybe making it difficult for you to breathe freely still. The worked skull pieces might even have been used as cups. A contemporary practice shows possible parallels, namely that ashes of deceased loved ones are being incorporated into jewellery like rings and necklaces today. Or, another possibility, was it former enemies hanging around their necks, like amulets or trophies? Hopefully, future DNA research into these human skulls will give more clarity on who the deceased were; related or foreign.
RAF pilot skull as talisman– An uncle of the author of this blog post, who was a co-pilot within the Royal Air Force (RAF) during the Second World War, always carried a piece of skull with him of one his mates. During one of the many flights bombing Germany this uncle had to pee. The toilet was in the rear of the plane. Meanwhile, a colleague took over his seat. When the uncle came back, the head of his colleague was blown off. The uncle saved a piece of his mate’s skull, and carried it in his pockets ever since. His wife, of partly Indonesian descent, disliked it. She wanted her husband to get rid off it, and set the spirit free. The uncle never never did – his talisman. He had survived the war. On average only one out of four pilots would survive. If aroused the reader’s interest, check this article with the full history and context: The silent downfall of the mestizo Indo culture in Indonesia – a personal family history.
A similar example has been found at Bar Hill near the town of Cambridge in England. It is a comb made of a human skull with a hole perforated into it, dated to the Iron Age and about 2,000 years old. Possibly also used as an amulet (Enkin 2023). Much later, dated around the year 725, a part of a cranium with runes carved into it has been found at the town of Ribe in southern Denmark. It also has a hole made in it. Again it may have been used as an amulet (Barnes 2012).
cups and amulets made of polished human skull, terp region Frisia - Iron Age / Roman Period
Many of the practices mentioned above date from the Roman Period, the Iron Age. But some of the rites and rituals probably survived well into the Early Middle Ages. By then, the Frisians had become your average, classic Germanic tribe. No longer worshiping the feminine gods, but the well-known testosterone gods Donar, Woden, and the typical Frisian god Foseti. The latter was worshiped on the Frisian island of Heligoland, also spelled as Helgoland, high in the North Sea. But Germanic goddesses existed, too, of which Freyja was the most important in the region. One of the pre-medieval superstitious practices that had survived was digging grooves or furrows. Indeed, back to the focus of this blog post.
Proof of the pagan practice of digging grooves in the Early Middle Ages is archived in the devotional Vatican. It is the Codex Palatinus Latinus 577. A book that contains the Indiculus superstitionum et paganiarum (‘small index of superstitious and pagan practices’), and it also includes the fascinating Baptismal Vow of Utrecht. The Baptismal Vow was written in the year 742 or 743, as opinions differ, and was possibly used by Saint Boniface himself to Christianize the unruly Frisians and Saxons in the eighth century.
A relatively obscure idol appears in the vow, namely the god Saxnot, also written as seaxneat, the son of the god Woden. Not specifically a Saxon idol, it is known by the Anglo-Saxons too (Van der Tuuk 2024). It may have been worshiped by Frisians as well, since the Frisians lived in the same region. The Baptismal Vow of Utrecht is also curious, since it is not written in the Latin language but in an odd mixture of Old Saxon, Old Frisian, and Old Low Franconian languages. We can compare it with the fusion languages of Papiamento and Patois of today. Clearly, the missionaries wanted the heathens to understand what they would renounce and embrace. Using understandable language, something modern governments still struggle with.
Anyway, picture how the Anglo-Saxon Archbishop Boniface baptized pagan Saxons and Frisians, reciting this creole vow below with, of course, a solemn and maybe somewhat impatient expression on his face:
Forsachistu diobolæ? Et respondeat: ec forsacho diabolæ.
End allum diobolgeldæ? Respondeat: end ec forsacho allum diobolgeldæ.
End allum dioboles uuercum? Respondeat: end ec forsacho allum dioboles uuercum
and uuordum thunær ende woden ende saxnote ende allum them unholdum the hira genotas sint.
Gelobistu in got alamehtigan fadær? Ec gelobo in got alamehtigan fadær.
Gelobistu in crist godes suno? Ec gelobo in crist gotes suno.
Gelobistu in halogen gast? Ec gelobo in halogan gast.
Do you forsake the Devil? And the answer must be: I renounce the Devil.
And all Devil’s money [sacrifices to the devil]? The answer must be: And I forsake Devil's money.
And all Devil’s work? The answer must be: And I forsake all Devil’s works
and words Donar and Woden and Saxnot and all demons who are their followers.
Do you believe in God the Almighty Father? I believe in God the Almighty Father.
Do you believe in Christ, God's Son? I believe in Christ, God's Son.
Do you believe in the Holy Spirit? I believe in the Holy Spirit.
The Indiculus 'index' itself
This index is without the book that has been lost, a book of the eighth century, probably a codex of the Abbey of Fulda in the state of Hesse in Germany (De Kort et al 2023). So, on this occasion, we have no choice but to judge the book by its cover. The Indiculus is written in the Latin language, although it contains a few Germanic words that they probably could not translate back then. These are the words nimida, i.e., the sanctuary in the forest, and maybe the same spot Tacitus identified, as mentioned earlier in this blog post, nodfyr, translated as ‘holy fire’ and considered the oldest Low Franconian/Old Dutch word that has survived, and yrias, which is a kind of run. In total thirty rituals and pagan practices are listed in the Indiculus:
de sacrilegio ad sepulchra mortuorum ‘of sacrilege at the graves of the dead’
de sacrilegio super defunctos i.e. dadsisas ‘of sacrilege to the dead, i.e. the death feast’
de spurcalibus in Februario ‘of swinish feasts in February’
de casulis i.e. fanis ‘of small buildings, i.e. shrines’
de sacrilegiis per ecclesias ‘of sacrilege in churches’
de sacris silvarum, quae nimidas vocant ‘of sanctuaries in woods they call nimidas’
de his, quae faciunt super petras ‘of those things they do upon the rocks’
de sacris Mercurii vel Iovis ‘of the sanctuaries of Mercury and Jupiter’
de sacrificio, quod fit alicui sanctorum ‘of the sacrificial service for some saints’
de philacteriis et ligaturis ‘of amulets and knots’
de fontibus sacrificiorum ‘of fountains of sacrifices’
de incantationibus ‘of incantations’
de auguriis vel avium vel equorum vel bovum stercora vel sternutationes ‘of auguries from manure from birds, horses or cattle and sneezing’
de divinis vel sortilegis ‘of diviners or sorcerers’
de igne fricato de ligno i.e. nodfyr ‘of the fire made from the friction of wood, i.e. nodfyr’
de cerebro animalium ‘of the brain of animals’
de observatione pagana in foco vel in inchoatione rei alicuius ‘of the observance of the pagans on the hearth, or at the start of any business’
de incertis locis, que (quae) colunt pro sanctis ‘of undetermined places they worship as sanctuary’
de petendo, quod boni vocant sanctae Mariae ‘of bed-straw which good people call Saint Mary’
de feriis, quae faciunt Iovi vel Mercurio ‘of feasts they hold for Jupiter or Mercury’
de lunae defectione, quod dicunt vince luna ‘of the lunar eclipse they call vince luna’
de tempestatibus et cornibus et cocleis ‘of creating storms and horns and snail shells’
de sulcis circa villas ‘of grooves encircling houses’
de pagano cursu, quem yrias nominant, scis[s]is pannis vel calciamentis ‘of the pagan race they call yrias, with torn clothes and shoes’
de eo, quod sibi sanctos fingunt quoslibet mortuos ‘of this, what they describe as a holy death’
de simulacro de consparsa farina ‘of the idol made of dough’
de simulacris de pannis factis ‘of idols made from torn clothes’
de simulacro, quod per campos portant ‘of the idol carried through fields’
de ligneis pedibus vel manibus pagano ritu ‘of wooden feet and hands in a pagan rite’
de eo, quod credunt, quia femine(ae) lunam comende(n)t, quod possint corda hominum tollere iuxta paganos ‘of this, which they believe, that women command the moon, so they can take out people’s heart according to the pagans’
Pagan practice number 23 is the one about grooves or ditches, often translated as furrows. Since the Indiculus is very general, it is impossible to really understand what the superstitious rituals actually looked like and what their purpose was. Nevertheless, it gives us a rare insight into some of the pre-Christian practices of the Saxons and the Frisians in the Early Middle Ages.
Although not in the terp region at the Wadden Sea coast, the practice of grooves in ritual practices has been found in a clay mound at the present-day town of Katwijk in the province of Zuid Holland as well. This earthwork was actually a burial ground, created more or less during the Roman Period. Here, circular grooves encircling cremation graves have been excavated. The cemetery of the village of Oosterbeintum in the province of Friesland also has circular ditches. From other burial grounds from the Iron Age in the Netherlands, we know that these grounds were considered transitional places between earth and the world of spirits. The burial grounds were often encircled by furrows. More generally, Late Bronze Age interments, often in an urn, were placed in a pit surrounded by a circular or oblong ring-ditch (Waterbolk 1977).
The (religious) practice or ritual of making grooves did not stop in the Middle Ages. Churches in the region of Westphalia in Germany, and in the Netherlands have grooves scratched into stones on the exterior of ca. 25 cm long and 5 to 6 cm wide and deep. This practice continued well into the twentieth century. You can find them, for example, at the southern door of the church of the village of Loppersum, on the sarcophagus in the church of the village of Termunten, in the Saint Boniface church in the village of Wehe-Den Hoorn, and on a tomb lid at the former cloister in the village of Ter Apel. All these examples are found in the province of Groningen. Also, the teeny tiny terp village of Jannum, also Janum, in the province of Friesland has lids of sarcophagi and altar stones with grooves. But in many more places in the Netherlands, grooves can be found, like the churches in the towns of Aardenburg, Goes, Naarden, Kortgene, and Rhoon.
Mostly, these grooves are made in sandstone, and the gravel that came from it was often dissolved in water and used to cure illnesses. By the way, not only gravel was used, but pulverized – and here we go again – human bone as well. This latter practice was documented by historian Gregory of Tours in the sixth century.
Chinese Medicine - Only recently the Chinese government legalized rhino and tiger bone for medical purposes. If people still believe in the medicinal remedy of bone, would it not be better if they return to the old practices, and use human bone again or the gravel of holy stones again?
Stones, besides grooves carved into them, were a scarcity in the marshy landscape of Frisia. Perhaps that contributed to the often spiritual or religious meaning of stones as well. Think of the stone Archbishop Rimbert of Bremen prayed upon to ask for God’s help for the Frisians to defeat the Vikings near the town of Norden in the region of Ostfriesland in the ninth century. Read our blog post A Theel-Acht. What a great idea! to learn more about this miracle, because it succeeded. The stone can be found at the Liudger Church in the town of Norden. But also think of the Devil’s stone in the village of Godlinze, the stone in the village of Holwierde, the stone at Westerklief on the (former) island of Wieringen, and the stones in the graveyard of the village of Rinsumageest. All rocks are shrouded with stories. Lastly, stones frequently appear in sagas, too, like in the East-Frisian sagas of Der Blutstein in Stapelmoor, Der Marienstein in Stapelmoor, Der Hilgenstein, Die Steine von Osteel, and Der Vosskutt in Burhafe, as well as in the saga Der Drachenstein bei Donnern near the port city of Bremerhaven.
Conclusion
After reading all of the above, from human skull cups and amulets hanging around necks to inhumations under house floors, bones placed in grooves, the Indicules, and mystical stones, we leave it now to the reader’s own imagination what the world and people looked like from the Roman Period to the Early Middle Ages, knowing, of course, that (a) lot had changed between these two eras.
Note 1 – The Roman idols Jupiter and Mercury, as mentioned in the pagan practices number 8 and 20 of the indiculus, were replaced in the Germanic religion by respectively Donar/Thor and Woden/Odin. After Christianization, these gods were replaced yet again, this time by respectively the apostle Saint Peter and Archangel Michael.
Note 2 – Frisians shaping their landscape by milling uncountable grooves and ditches and other waterways, even received their tribes name because of it 2,000 years ago! Read our blog post A severe case of inattentional blindness: the Frisian tribe’s name. Understand why they are the real earthmovers, obsessed with digging grooves and ditches.
Note 3 – There are also indications that crossroads were considered places where spirits dwelled. This is known from Dutch folklore, and also from early medieval Old English texts where crossroads are considered a place between the worlds where supernatural spirits can be contacted. Recent excavations in the nature area Springendal near the hamlet of Hezingen in the province of Overijssel (2020-2021), also indicate the spiritual importance of crossroads (De Kort et al 2023). The early ninth-century penitential handbook pseudo-Romanum, written by Bishop Halitgar of Cambrai, instructed that anyone who makes or dissolves a vow at, among others, a crossroad should have penance of bread and water for three years (Arnold 2024).
For those readers from the Netherlands, think also of the ’80s children’s series De Zevensprong (‘the seven crossroad’), which was a magical place. And, of course, think of the blues song “Cross Road Blues” by Robert Johnson (1911-1938), the place where he went to sell his soul to the Devil in exchange for musical talent.
Note 4 – Featured image: Kierin Magenta Kirby.
Suggested music
Deee-Lite, Groove Is in the Heart (1990)
Stevie Wonder, Superstition (1972)
Creedence Clearwater Revival, I Put a Spell on You (1968)
Robert Johnson, Cross Road Blues (1937)
Further reading
Arnold, E.F., Medieval Riverscapes. Environment and Memory in Northwest Europe, c. 300-1100 (2024)
Barnes, M.P., Runes. A handbook (2012)
Coulthard, S., A Short History of the World According to Sheep (2020)
Eijnatten, van J. & Lieburg, van F., Nederlandse religiegeschiedenis (2006)
Enkin, M., Ancient Comb Made From Human Skull Unearthed in England (2023)
Fernández-Götz, M. & Roymans, N., The Politics of Identity: Late Iron Age Sanctuaries in the Rhineland (2015)
Fontijn, D., Economies of Destruction. How the systematic destruction of valuables created value in Bronze Age Europe c. 2300-500 BC (2020)
Groenewoudt, B., Beek, van R. & Groothedde, M., Christianisation and the Afterlife of Pagan Open-Air Cult Sites. Evidence from the Northern Frankish Frontier (2016)
Hines, J., Religion and conversion amongst the Frisians (2021)
Hunink, V., Tacitus. In moerassen & donkere wouden. De Romeinen in Germanië (2015)
In Pago Wirense, Legends and Folklore on Wieringen (website)
Knol, E., et al, The medieval cemetery of Oosterbeintum (Friesland) (1996)
Kort, de J.W., Groenewoudt, B. & Heeren, S. (eds.), Goud voor de goden. Onderzoek naar een cultusplaats uit de vroege middeleeuwen in het natuurgebied Springendal bij Hezingen (gemeente Tubbergen( (2023)
Laan, van der J., De bijzondere houten voorwerpen uit de opgravingen in Ezinge (2016)
Lendering, J., Hludana. Livius.org (2004)
Looijenga, T., Texts and Contexts of the Oldest Runic Inscriptions (2003)
McGreevy, N., This wooden sculpture is twice as old as Stonehenge and the pyramids (2021)
Mees, K., Burial, Landscape and Identity in Early Medieval Wessex (2019)
Neumann, G., Namenstudien zum Altgermanischen (2008)
Nicolay, J., Het kweldergebied als cultuurlandschap: een model (2015)
Nieuwhof, A., Dagelijks leven op terpen en wierden (2018)
Nieuwhof, A., Eight human skulls in a dung heap and more. Ritual practice in the terp region of the northern Netherlands 600 BC–AD 300 (2015)
Nieuwhof, A., Graven en botten. Menselijke resten in Ezinge (2014)
Nieuwhof, A., The Frisians and their Pottery: Social Relations before and after the Fourth Century AD (2021)
Oneindig Noord-Holland, Een idool van hout (2012)
Prummel, W. & Hullegie, A.G.J., Bewerkte voorhoofdsbeenderen van pasgeboren kalveren uit drie terpen (2016)
Renswoude, van O., De weg naar een nieuwe ee (2021)
Renswoude, van O., Hof, harg en hal: het heten van heiligdommen (2021)
Renswoude, van O., Hoge ouderdom op de Veluwe (2021)
Renswoude, van O., Woen bij de Friezen (2021)
Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel Erfgoed, Een wierde van waarde: schimmen uit het Rottumer verleden (2023)
RTV NOF, Willem Schoorstra duikt in verborgen verleden van Fryslân (2023)
Saupe, H.A., Der Indiculus Superstitionum Et Paganiarum. Ein Verzeichnis Heidnischer Und Aberglaubischer Gebrauche Und Meinungen Aus Der Zeit Karls Grossen (1891)
Schuyf, J., Heidense heiligdommen. Zichtbare sporen van een verloren verleden (2019)
Siefkes, W., Ostfriesische Sagen und sagenhafte Geschichten (1963)
Simek, R., Lexikon der germanischen Mythologie (2021)
Smook, B., Kerstening veranderde Fries begrafenisritueel (2024)
The Troth, De God Saxnot: dit is wat we weten (website)
Tuin, B., Rondslingerend menselijk bot? (2015)
Tuuk, van der L., De Friezen. De vroegste geschiedenis van het Nederlandse kustgebied (2013)
Tuuk, van der L. De Saksen. Middeleeuwse geschiedenis in de Lage Landen (2024)
Visser, A., Scheppers van aarde (2016)
Waterbolk, H.T., Walled enclosures of the Iron Age in the North of the Netherlands (1977)